Chapter 1

Key Ideas

Chapter one gives a brief history of the use of computing in education. The authors discuss the history regarding costs, the integration of text, graphics and color, the introduction of the mouse, networks and the Internet, and the arrival of personal computers. One of the setbacks for educational computing in all of this is that with the introduction of personal computers, instructional software was not readily available because the computer was not sophisticated enough to handle it.

Some of the main problems with using computers in education are hardware and software incompatibility, shortage of skilled people in developing instruction, disagreements over how they should be used, and an erroneous belief that simply adding multimedia enhances instruction.

The authors also site some of the major benefits of using computers in instruction. They posit that materials can be distributed more efficiently, users can have access to up-to-date materials, learners can access material whenever is convenient for them, material can be made accessible for people with disabilities, and simulations provide a risk-free environment for learning.

Further, the authors make the case for using computers for instruction in the following situations: When the cost of other methods of instruction is high, when safety is a concern, when material is hard to teach using other methods, when extensive practice is needed, when learner motivation is low, when logistic considerations exist in traditional instruction, and when the material needs to be accessible.

The final section of the chapter deals with the processes of instruction. The first process in instruction, according to the authors, is the presentation of information. They assert that the presentation of information can be undertaken through any medium, not just via instructors. The next process is "Guiding the Learner," in the which the learner attempts to apply new knowledge with the instructor guiding the process. The next step in the instructional process is practice. In this phase "The learner must usually be able to perform quickly or fluently, sometimes under conditions of distraction, with few or no errors" (p. 9). Finally, the authors mention assessment as the final phase of the instructional process. During this phase learning should be assessed through test or rubrics. It is important to assess the level of learning as well as the quality of learning.

Finally, the authors provide suggestions for how computers can be utilized for each phase of the instructional process.

Relation to my Project

The initial idea for my project was merely a tutorial, which doesn't cover all of the aspects of the instructional process. To make this project successful I will need to find ways to incorporate the entire process of instruction into my project.

Chapter 2

Key Ideas

This chapter argues that understanding learning principles will aid an educator in developing effective instructional materials and effective instruction. They provide an overview of three fundamental philosophies of learning: Behaviorism, Cognitivism, and Constructivism.

Behaviorism posits that response to a stimuli can be conditioned or learned. Therefore, the use of rewards and punishments is seen as a means of conditioning the learners response to a particular stimulus. Educational research is seen then as focusing only on observable behaviors. Some of the fruits of a behaviorist philosophy are textbooks, mastery, repetition, etc. Critics of behaviorism assert that this approach does not allow for thinking, reflection, memory or motivation. In short they believe that too much emphasis is placed on instructor and instructional materials and not on the learner.

A cognitive approach to learning seeks to assuage some of the shortcomings of behaviorism. Emphasis is placed o on the mind, memory, attitudes, motivations, thinking and reflecting of the students. Cognitivist are interested in the internal processes that shape learning. Some of the main principles of cognitivism are semantic networks, schema theory, perception and attention, and encoding. Each of these principles deals with memory, comprehension, activity and motivation.

The constructivist approach to learning seeks to counter an objectivist world view. An objectivist philosophy espouses instruction or teaching as the process of helping the learner correctly interpret the real world. Three schools of thought amongst constructivists deal with this issue. Social constructivists claim that reality is largely shaped by social influences. Moderate constructivists, of which I am one, claim that there is a real world, but our understanding of it is very individualized and contextualized.

A constructivist approach to learning seeks to emphasize learning rather than teaching, active learning, discovery approaches, constructing projects, situated learning environments, cooperative and collaborative learning, authentic learning tasks and activities, learner autonomy or perceived autonomy, reflection and motivation through relevancy.

Relation to my Project

The authors write, "Designers of interactive multimedia should develop an understanding of all these and create materials based on them" (p. 41). I am limited in this project due to my own technical skills and due to the fact that I will not be the instructor using this computer program. Therefore, it will be more difficult for me to incorporate some of the concepts from this chapter. However, I will seek to include the important aspects in my project.

Chapter 3

Key Ideas

Chapter three deals with the controls and features that the authors feel should be included in learning software. First, they propose creating a title page that includes the title, tells what the program is about, an attention getter, the author's name, copyright information and an option for exiting the program. Another suggestion provided deals with allowing users to skip the flash startup page. Further, the startup page should make explicit how to continue in the program.

Much of the chapter is focused on learner control. According to the authors there are four main considerations for providing learner control. 1) What can the learner control. 2) How much control should the learner have. 3) What are the methods of control. 4) What is the mode of control. Perhaps the most important aspect of learner controls is providing a logical means of sequence. That is, how does one move forward, backward and continue. There should always be learner control over when to move forward in the sequence. The learner should also be given a means of reviewing or jumping to different sections of the program. The authors also suggest providing means of temporarily terminating the program. However, this seems to me to be a very difficult aspect to include in the program, so I won't be doing it. Finally, the authors ask us to consider using controls for movies, sound and animations.

The authors then deal with the methods of control and exhort us to limit modes of control. They discuss a wide variety of controls and provide suggestions for ways to make these controls effective. For example, buttons should have different over and down states.

One of the major points of this chapter deals with consistency. Consistency in wording will help to clarify the content, consistency in menu will help navigation, and consistency with font and color schemes will make the program easier to digest.

The authors then talk about really keeping the program lean. They caution us to avoid excessive detail and realism, unless those things are important to the learning process. Basically, they invite designers to present only vital information and to do so in a clear, concise manner.

Finally, the authors give suggestions for providing help. They make a distinction between procedural help and informational help. However, I was not quite clear and how they delineated these two concepts. It is enough here to know that help should always be available, help should be readily accessible, should always be visible, and should be provided up front in a manual.

Relation to My Project

I do not plan to use a startup or flash page at the beginning of this program. However, I might reconsider after reading this chapter. Also, since I am working with video and have music playing at the beginning of my program, I need to put in sound controls for the users. I know that I am already tired of hearing the song every time I test the program, so it will probably be annoying after a while for users as well. I don't know how sequential my program is going to be, so that is something I need to consider. Finally, I don't know if I need to include an exit button because the user will be able to simply exit the program like they would any web page. I will have to think about all of these issues.

Chapter 12

Key Concepts

In this chapter the authors present their own ISD Model for creating computer-based instructional materials. As a foundation, they remind the designer that the person of most import in this process is the client because that is the person we have to satisfy. This seems to be a bit different from what I have been told in class.

Many of the procedures in the authors' model are quite similar to the various aspects of an ISD approach. Their approach embodies several points. First, the designer and the client should agree on standards that should be striven for in the project. Next, development should be a continuous process of drafting, evaluating, and revising the product. Further, they suggest that project management is essential for a successful project. By project management they mean planning, monitoring progress against the plan and communication between key participants. The next step they mention is to make the project effective from the cognitive psychological perspective. Further, they argue that there is a progression from discussion to ideas to implementation. They suggest taking a substantial amount of time to discuss the project with team members before implementing plans. Next, creativity is seen as a vital component to the effective production of an instructional program. Finally they say that the best way to approach an instructional project is in teams. Collaboration, they argue, is the best way to meet high standards for quality.

This chapter suggests several specific areas for creating an effective program. In the planning phase they mention instituting the project's goals, determining what the learners should know after participation, assessing learner characteristics, setting technical constraints, and system and learner requirements, creating a budget, drafting a planning document and a style manual. They then offer suggestions for designing and developing standards for the project.

Relation to My Project

I don't agree with much of this chapter. I do agree with the specifics that they offer for insuring content quality, but I think that their processes are purely academic. Design, development and evaluation do not act in a volume. In my own design they interact to produce a positive instructional product. I have adhered to, and will continue to adhere to rapid-prototyping. However, I will strive to implement the practical suggestions listed in this chapter.

Chapter 13

Key Concepts

Chapter 13 argues that a final instructional software product will likely be more successful if the proper planning is undertaken before the design and development phases. The authors posit that three things need to be in place throughout the life of the project: adherence to standards set in the planning phase, ongoing evaluation and project management and oversight. Each of these pieces relies heavily on the planning phase of project management.

The first aspect of planning mentioned is defining the scope of the content. It answers the questions; what are the desired outcomes? Who will learn? What will they learn? What level of proficiency needs to be achieved? These questions can best be answered by identifying the characteristics of learners and getting with your client to set standards. The authors then suggest establishing constraints, or boundaries within which the development will take place and which provide a feasible framework from which the program can be developed.

The next step suggested in the planning phase is to set deadlines or create a timeline for the project. They propose tying deadlines to people, or specifying who is responsible for what. This timeline can also aid the planner in establishing a budget for the project.

Next, it is suggested that you get in writing what the main responsibilities are of all the key players in the project. Further, the planner, the developer and the client document the major characteristics of the program's content. Along with planning for content, it is suggested that the planner develop a style manual for how the content will be delivered and ensure consistency of material. They also exhorts planners and developers to obtain proper permissions. That is, you need proper permission to use photos, video, sound, etc. It is also essential to obtain sign-off and establish sign-off procedures for each stage in the project.

Finally, they assert that detailed planning is typically underestimated, but is essential for a successful project. According to the authors, taking time to plan will decrease the time it takes to produce the project in the long run. In conclusion they suggest that proper planning prevents many bad things from happening.

Relation to My Project

I don't have a lot of time or resources available for planning my project. Much of the things mentioned in this chapter are dealt with as I begin the design process of this project. I am working closely with my client to develop content as we develop the project. It would be nice to have the time and resources to follow the procedures in this chapter, but it doesn't seem to be plausible in my case.

Appendix A

Key Concepts

The Storyboards provided in Appendix A are a bit confusing to me. I have never used a storyboard before, so I am unsure how they are supposed to be utilized in the design of a project. I can't tell if you are supposed to use one form for the entire project, or if each screen on the project takes a storyboard sheet. I went to their web site to try and find out how to use the storyboard, but there wasn't anything there except a downloadable storyboard.

Relation to My Project

I created my own storyboard for this project and how I thought things should fit together, but I am not sure how to use theirs.

Chapter 14

Key Concepts

Following the planning stage in project management comes the design of the product. The authors argue that the purpose of educational multimedia is to facilitate learning outcomes for a set of learners. Therefore, it is important for the designer to understand learning theory and learning methodologies. The purpose then of the design phase is to present the proper information in a manner that will be most effective for a set of learners with certain characteristics.

The authors suggest creating design documents that guide the designer, the client, the project manager, the content experts, and the trainers or teachers. The designer is responsible for producing the design documents and keeps them updated throughout the project. Clients range from within to without organizations. The purpose of the design documents is to aid in the communication between the design team and the client. Project managers use the design documents to oversee the project and make sure everything is on track. Content experts are sometimes consulted to maintain content accuracy. The design document they receive should depict program flow. Finally, teachers or trainer can also be consulted to ensure that proper instructional processes are followed. Scripts, prototypes and storyboards are helpful design documents for teachers and trainers.

The authors then turn to a discussion of the production staff and their role in designing the project. They mention writers that produce the content, programmers, who create the software, artists, who produce the look and feel of the product, videographers, who capture helpful video, and audiographers, who assist in auditory cues and materials.

Next, they turn to a discussion of developing content ideas for the project. They mention brainstorming, followed by a logical elimination of some listed ideas, and a consideration of the learners, the relationship of content to instructional goals, and the abilities of production staff.

This chapter also taught me how to storyboard. I like how the storyboard helps you to conceptualize how each screen of the product will look and how it will all tie together.

Relation to My Project

This chapter was informative for me if I were working on a design and development team. However, since I am doing this project on my own, a lot of this information was not that relevant for me. The part about storyboarding and creating task analyses were helpful in conceptualizing, designing and developing my project.

Appendix B

Key Concepts

This appendix offers sample table of contents for an instructor's manual, a learner's manual, and a technical manual. The instructor and learner manuals seem to be closely related with the instructor's manual being perhaps a bit more detailed.

Relation to My Project

The only way I can find relevance from this appendix is to think of the help section of my project as an instruction manual. I do not have the time or resources to put these manuals together, but I am including help options on each screen to help learners and the instructor. However, this does not seem to be an adequate way of introducing instructional goals and purposes.

Chapter 15

Key Concepts

Following the Planning and Design Phases of the project process comes the development process. During this phase the developers prepare the text, write the program code, create the graphics, produce the multimedia, assemble the pieces, preparing support materials, doing pilot testing, making revisions, obtaining client sign-offs for all of this and finally making sure that the program works properly.

They suggest that a project management chart be created to make sure that each of the aforementioned steps are completed in a timely manner. The chart sets deadlines and tells who is responsible for that aspect of development. Further, the authors talk about preparing the support materials which include the manuals from Appendix B. The chapter goes into greater detail about what each section of the table of contents should contain.

The testing of the program should include people who are similar to those who will be participating in the program. The developer should observe the learner participating in the program and see how the learner goes about navigating the program and looking for indecision or problems. They also suggest interviewing the participants afterward and making changes based on the observational and interview data.

Final revisions are made after a thorough testing and a run through with the client. It is important to receive client sign-off at this point. The authors then suggest following Kirkpatrick's four levels of evaluation to determine the effectiveness of the program. I am very familiar with this because I based my M.P.A. Thesis on his book.

Relation to My Project

As with most of this book, these ideas sound neat and clean, but I don't know how well these things actually work when someone is really involved in creating an instructional product. This chapter presents steps that sound like a nice logical order, but in real life, these steps are often occurring simultaneously and are undertaken when the resources or time are available.

Chapter 8

Key Concepts

I chose this chapter because Dr. Choi was so adamant about including a game as an evaluation tool in my program. The authors argue that games are not just for younger folks, but for adults as well. They assert that games for children are often repetitive in nature. That is, they are drills. However, some children's games are simulations that put children in a "virtual" world where they can experiment with that world in a realistic manner. Games for mature learners also tend to be simulations and are used to help adults learn how to behave or act in certain situations. Finally, the authors define games as having rules and providing an opportunity for winning or losing.

The authors argue that games have some inherent advantages as a learning environment. Motivation is typically higher when gaming is used as an instructional model. In many cases it encourages learners to study subjects or materials they wouldn't have studied otherwise. Because of the gaming format, learners are also more likely to spend a greater amount of time on the learning situation. The reason these things occur is because games typically increase intrinsic motivation. This means that learning is more enjoyable. Finally, some games facilitate the integration of knowledge and skills in a particular context.

The authors provide several examples of what format of games can be effective for education. They mention adventure and role-playing games, business games, board games, combat games, logic games, puzzles, and word games.

This chapter suggests that games should include the following relevant factors:

• Goals
• Rules
• Players
• Equipment
• Directions
• Constraints
• Penalties
• Choices

Relation to My Project

This chapter is quite relevant to my project because Dr. Choi told me to include a gaming element in my project. However, I think my own bias against gaming taints my view of the chapter. Gaming is not an effective educational tool for me. I would much rather have information presented in a documentary manner. It was my intention to create my project based on this, but I will include a game in order to pass this class. I challenge the assertion that competition is good for education. If one loses, or the game is too challenging, it would be easy for some learners to give up.

Anyway, I will try to incorporate the instructions from this chapter into my game that tests my learners' comprehension on a variety of levels.